Drivers and intergenerational continuity of violent child discipline methods

Summary of Findings from SVRI panel on "Following violence over time: what longitudinal research tells us about prevention"

Authors: Tia Palermo, Rebecca Akunzirwe, Khudejha Asghar, Romina Buffarini, Flore Rossi, Olga Chisca

Violent discipline is harmful for children, so why does the practice persist around the world? Drivers include a combination of norms around childrearing and triggers for violence, including poverty, stress, alcohol use, and exposure to other forms of violence (e.g., intimate partner violence). Research presented at SVRI 2026 in Bangkok in a panel chaired by PRESTO’s Tia Palermo sheds new light on the topic, informed by rigorous longitudinal evidence. Findings confirm the intergenerational continuity of violence practices and can help inform how and when to intervene to break the cycle.

Entitled “Following violence over time: what longitudinal research tells us about prevention,” the panel covered a wide geographical range, including South Africa, Brazil, Uganda, Moldova, and a multi-country study in South and East Asia. Several studies* in this panel looked at intergenerational drivers of violent discipline of children and, altogether, expanded learning on points of intervention.

Studies in rural and peri-urban settings on the African continent mapped factors and pathways for intergenerational transmission of violence in the home. In Uganda, Rebecca Akunzirwe (University of Oxford) presented learning showing that among young women, experiences of emotional and sexual violence in childhood were associated with the use of violent discipline methods with participants’ own children in adulthood. However, physical violence was not a significant risk factor, likely because physical violence was ubiquitous (87% of participants were exposed to physical violence in childhood), so there was too little variability in this experience across participants to detect how varying exposure is associated with later use of violence. The fact that physical violence was so widespread underscores the strong social norm of violent physical discipline of children.

In South Africa, a study presented by Khudejha Asghar (Queen Margaret University) took a more holistic approach to examining parenting practices, unpacking the effects of both violent and non-violent parenting practices. The study found that exposure to praise in childhood led to reduced anxiety, depression, and PTSD. Conversely, exposure to psychological abuse led to increased depression, anxiety, and PTSD. Similar to Uganda, the study found that exposure to emotional but not physical violence from caregivers in childhood was associated with violent parenting practices in adulthood. However, the relationship between childhood exposure to violent parenting and use of violent parenting practices in adulthood was indirect, with childhood exposure increasing risk of future experiences of intimate partner violence, leading to economic insecurity and stress, and use of violent discipline methods.

One study, presented by Romina Buffarini (Federal University of Pelotas), moved beyond intra-household factors to highlight community-level factors affecting the intergenerational continuity of violence, namely neighborhood violence and social cohesion. This study showed that, in Brazil, living in violent neighborhoods in early childhood is associated with elevated risk of experiencing harsh parenting in the subsequent years. The study also showed that higher social cohesion did not reduce this association, suggesting that making neighborhoods safer and strengthening social connections among neighbors may require separate and complementary interventions.

Evidence presented by Flore Rossi (UNICEF) and Olga Chisca (UNFPA) on the co-occurrence of violence against women (VAW) and violence against children (VAC) in Moldova led researchers to conduct a mixed-methods study, which highlighted a lack of prevention programming in the country as well as a lack of coordination of VAW and VAC responses, and a need for economic strengthening combined with norms change. Another finding emerging from the study was the limited adaptations of existing programming for marginalized populations such as the Roma and people with disabilities.

Additionally, a recent study by PRESTO researchers and UNICEF showed that norms, combined with chronic stressors such as poverty, alcohol abuse, and intimate partner violence, in Sao Tome and Principe drive violent discipline practices against children. In this study, caregivers believed that violent discipline methods were required to teach children how to behave, and that being “too soft” on them was harmful.

“Yes, I support her! I support her with a spanking when she doesn't want to do her homework. Every mum wants her child to study. To be good. You have to support them” – Caregiver under 35 years, Autonomous Region of Principe, Sao Tome and Principe

“We can love them too much, but not to show that we love them, because that creates problems.” – Caregiver over 35 years, Lemba, Sao Tome and Principe

The findings summarized above show that violence experienced in childhood has implications for future well-being and the continuity of violence perpetration. Preventing violence will require both addressing chronic stressors such as poverty, substance abuse, and household and neighborhood violence exposure, as well as changing norms which lead caregivers to believe that violence is an appropriate and necessary method to raise children and influence their behavior.

Taken together, findings underscore the need for early intervention to break the harmful cycle of violent discipline in childhood. Early intervention may take the form of social and behavior change interventions at the community level to shift harmful social norms, gender transformative parenting programs, VAC-GBV response strengthening and better coordination (to address IPV and reduce exposure in the household), and investment in mental health services, for example through community health programming, for both children and caregivers. Breaking the cycle can lead to healthier relationships, freedom from violence, and improved mental health.

Findings summarized above come from studies presented at SVRI 2026 on the panel entitled “Following violence over time: what longitudinal research tells us about prevention.” Study titles and author affiliations are listed below:

1)  Are early life neighbourhood contexts associated with later child maltreatment? Evidence from a population-based birth cohort study in Brazil

Romina Buffarini is a researcher at Human Development and Violence Research Centre (DOVE) at the Federal University of Pelotas and Federal University of Rio Grande (FURG).

2)  Longitudinal associations between early life violence and use of harsh discipline in adulthood in Luwero District, Uganda: How do the contexts of violence matter?

Rebecca Akunzirwe is a Ugandan mixed-methods DPhil researcher at the University of Oxford.

3)  Mapping the intergenerational continuity of violent and non-violent parenting practices through a longitudinal cohort study in South Africa

Khudejha Asghar is an independent researcher and Honorary Fellow at Queen Margaret University and the University of Edinburgh.

4) The cycle of violence: Analyzing the intersections of domestic violence against women and children in Moldova

Flore Rossi is Chief of the Child Protection Section for UNICEF Moldova.

Olga Chisca is a Programme Analyst on Gender/GBV with UNFPA Moldova. This research was conducted in collaboration with Tsunagu [contact is Masumi Yamashina].

*Another powerful study on the panel (not covered here, but we encourage you to read the associated forthcoming blog on the PRESTO website) presented by Kanzha Vinaa and Avali Khare filled persistent gaps in official reporting of transphobic violence, hate crimes, and harmful practices against transgender and gender diverse people.